In causal inference, a confounder[a] is a variable that affects both the dependent variable and the independent variable, creating a spurious relationship. [1][2][3]

Jun 9, 2021 · Confounding variable: A variable that is not included in an experiment, yet affects the relationship between the two variables in an experiment. This type of variable can …

May 29, 2020 · What is a confounding variable? Confounding variables (a.k.a. confounders or confounding factors) are a type of extraneous variable that are related to a study’s …

Sep 15, 2020 · A confounder affects both the independent and dependent variables. In contrast, a mediator or effect modifier does not affect the independent variable, but does modify the effect …

A confounder is thus a third variable—not the exposure, and not the outcome [2] —that biases the measure of association we calculate for the particular exposure/outcome pair.

In this article we will examine definitions and language concerning “confounders” in both formal methodological work and in epidemiologic practice. We will reflect on how such language …

Confounding is an example of such mechanism that alters the relationship between X and Y, and therefore, leads to an over or underestimation of the true effect between them. In its simplest …

CONFOUNDER meaning: 1. something that affects the result of a scientific experiment in a way that makes it less clear…. Learn more.

Jul 24, 2025 · Confounders represent a challenge in determining true cause-and-effect relationships. They can lead to mistaken conclusions, where one factor appears to influence …

Confounding: A confounder drives changes in both the independent and dependent variables but is not part of the causal chain you’re specifically interested in.